Argument Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 6

Argument - Essay Example According to US constitution, every citizen irrespective of their age, gender, race, culture, etc has the right to live. No one is allowed to take the life of the other person. Therefore, it is illegal for any person irrespective of the profession to decide whether the other person will live or not. With the current stressing condition, legalizing the practice will increase the number of euthanasia cases. When patients are undergoing intense pain and suffering, they are likely to make wrong decisions which are regrettable. Therefore, assisted suicide is unethical because it gives a person who is of unsound mind an opportunity to make critical decisions on their assistance. As a result, the practice should be legalized. Allowing assisted suicide in our hospitals will lead to an increase in the cases of negligence. Currently, the number of negligence cases in our health facilities is alarming. Therefore, allowing physicians to terminate the life of people suffering from terminal diseases will reduce the accountability levels. The health providers will get an escape route in case they make mistakes that could have otherwise been avoided. According to our religious beliefs, only God has the power to take the life of a person. Therefore, assisted suicide is not ethical because it provides a person with the right to kill. In addition, such laws will even make patients who are not suffering from terminal diseases to prefer to undergo voluntary euthanasia instead of fighting the disease to the end. In many cases, the health providers have been faced with dilemmas on either to save one person especially during giving birth. However, some cases ends up being successful with both lives having been saved. However, if euthanasia is legalized, health providers will not give a try to solve such dilemmas. This will lead to increased deaths that could have otherwise been avoided. Many people in the society fear suffering. With the number of people suffering from

Historiographic review of the great terror in Russia (1936- 1938) Assignment

Historiographic review of the great terror in Russia (1936- 1938) - Assignment Example This information was proved by the number of documents and annals as well. There are many notes that were made by Stalin personally. These documents testify that he ordered to kill more and more people. He marked the sentences with the red pencil (Kuromiya, 2007). Some names were marked by the additional notes, such as â€Å"kill more†. At the bottom of the pages there was a comment â€Å"Everyone should be shot†. The number of shot â€Å"enemies† was more than 3000 per day. It was proved that during the previously mentioned period 681692 people were sentenced to death, because of the political motives (Getty, 1993). However, according to other sources, the number of victims was much higher. Counting the victims, we should also take into account those who died in prisons, correctional labor colonies and gulags and also those who were just shot due to the criminal offences. So, the number of the victims reached 1 million (Frierson C.and Vilenski, 2010). Moreover, in 1936 -1939 more than 1,2 million of communists were arrested that was a half of the communist party. Only 50 thousand of them got their liberty, the rest were shot or just died in prison. Getty and Manning (1993) state: â€Å"during the Great Terror, the NKVD [Narodnyy Komissariat Vnutrennikh Del] investigated and commonly arrested party members who had been purged from the party. Once the NKVD had made a number of arrests, party members having any association with those arrested were called before the party committee for questioning. At one Moscow textile mile, all party members with relatives, friends, co-workers, or any other associates who had been arrested were themselves subject to questioning, expulsion from the party and arrest† (Getty and Manning 1993: 164). The name â€Å"The Great Terror: was given to the events after the name of the book written by Conquest. The book is called â€Å"The Great Terror†. In the Soviet Union it was called â€Å"ezhovshinaà ¢â‚¬  after the last name of commissar Ezhov, who was arrested on April, 10, 1939. He was also shot on February 4, 1940. He was accused of the sympathy to Trotskyism, espionage and the preparation of the revolution. Getty and Manning describe: â€Å"he was a fairly colorless, mediocre individual who was raised up to the heights of party and state leadership by the will of Stalin, am ordinary product of creation and establishment by the will of Stalin, an ordinary product of the creation and establishment of totalitarian, coercive and bureaucratic system. He was truly a servant of the regime of personal power who compensated for his low moral and political qualities by exhibiting selfless love for in, and devotion to the leader† (Getty and Manning 1993: 21). His henchmen had same destiny. It should be noticed that not all of the mass repressions organizers shared the destiny of their victims. Some of them made an excellent carrier. For example Beria, who was the organizer of the great terror in Georgia. He and his henchmen got the beneficial positions in the Party, NKVD, army and other branches (Davis, 1997). There was an interesting episode in the terror campaign. One of the heads of NKVD, Feldman, beat one of the prisoners. As a result the man stayed in hospital for long. This case was under control and Feldman proved his actions and was not going to be sorry. He emphasized that he had a right to behave this way, because he had Beria’s directive. Feldman added that he would continue to act this

Case Study of China Aviation Oil Corporation Ltd

Case Study of China Aviation Oil Corporation Ltd Risk Management and Corporate Governance A Case Study of China Aviation Oil Corporation Ltd. Background introduction to CAO China Aviation Oil (Singapore) Corporation Ltd (CAO) is the Singapore subsidiary of China Aviation Oil. CAO was established in 1993 and its main business were jet fuel (kerosene) purchase for Chinese airports and international trading of fuels. CAO developed really fast and achieved 92% market share of the procurement of imported jet fuel for Chinas civil aviation industry by 2001. However, it was then involved in a big scandal which lead to its failure. In November 2004, CAO declared a total loss of $550 million and filed for bankruptcy. timeline of critical events Q1 2003 CAO enters into speculative option trades on oil prices with a bullish view Q4 2003 CAO changed its strategy and started trading speculative option trades taking a bearish view. Oct 2004 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  international oil prices rose steeply, leaving CAO facing significant margin calls on its open (short) derivative positions. Nov 2004 in a press release CAO stated it was unable to meet some of the margin calls arising from speculative derivative trades. The total derivative losses amounted to $550m. Mar 2006 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  CEO Mr. Chen Jiulin was arrested with the charge of insider trading, fined and sentenced to 51 months imprisonment. Literature Review option-based strategies There are two types of options: call and put option. One can either long or short the two options to gain profit (speculating) or mitigate risk(hedging) from price changes. In this case, CAO started its option trading in 2002 initially to hedge its jet fuel risk thorough. derivatives of futures and swaps. However, in the mid 2003, CAO started trading in speculative derivative options. hedging A hedge is needed to mitigate the risk from potential unfavorable swings in commodities. However, considering the cost and benefit effect, a hedge is not always necessary. One needs to understand the risks to be hedged, evaluate the severity and timing of downside risks properly, consider the financial instruments available and costs of certain instruments to determine the most cost-effective way to hedge. risk management and corporate governance Risk management is the identification, assessment, and prioritization of risks followed by coordinated and economical application of resources to minimize, monitor, and control the probability and/or impact of unfortunate events or to maximize the realization of opportunities. Risks can come from various sources including uncertainty in financial markets, threats from project failures, legal liabilities, credit risk, accidents, natural causes and disasters, or uncertain events, etc. The Board should establish appropriate guidelines for trading and ensured that they were consistent with the companys fundamental risk management policies, management capabilities and expertise, and overall risk appetite and tolerance. Senior managers (including executive members of the board) should formulate the major policies and guidelines of an institution. There should be a separation of duties between those who generate financial risks and those who manage and control these risks. Analysis CAOs trading strategies escalating bets As mentioned above, the companys trading strategy changing from hedging risks in 2002 to speculation with bullish strategy (bought calls and sold puts)in Q1 2003, which proved to be an accurate prediction. However, CAO then took a bearish view of the trend in oil prices in the fourth quarter of 2003, and began to sell calls and buy puts, with the result that it was in a short position at the end of the quarter. As the assumption was that oil prices would fall, it was further assumed that the counterparties would not extend the options, and these would therefore lapse to the benefit of the company. However, the price went further upward this time. The rise in oil prices resulted in the counterparties exercising the extendible features on options, and with the calls that were sold, the company faced the real risk of having to sell the contracted number of barrels at the strike price and realizing substantial loss. incorrect option valuation methodology The Special Auditor from PwC assigned by SGX discovered that the company used the wrong MTM valuation method by ignoring the time value, which lead to the misestimation of oil price and the wrong speculation strategy. While CAO had the chance to remedy the mistake by comparing the pricing with counterparties but the company met the margin calls without protest until it lost the financial capacity to do so at the end of September 2004. motivations behind Financial: the company developed fast and became monopoly in the market since 2000. In order to bolster its profile as well as boost investors confidence and generate more profit, the company was willing to take high risk. Political: according to exhibit 8, the year 2003 saw the burst of Gulf War. The company may want to take advantage of the war so that higher risk is acceptable as fuel is a critical resource during wars. Corporational: the lack of risk management knowledge of the CEO, insufficient management environment within the company and the inefficient external audit, as will be discussed in detail in the next section, further accelerated the fall of the big company. CAOs risk management and corporate governance In its 2003 annual report, CAO indicated that it had a formal system of rigorous internal controls over three layers. Meanwhile, other sources of control includes China Securities Regulatory Commission and External Audits. It seems that the company should have a stringent risk appetite. However, according to PwCs report, despite a continuing significant loss in 2004, in order to avoid recording and reporting losses, the company adopted a much larger risk exposure by selling longà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ term options with extremely high risk profiles to raise the premiums to cover the cost of closing out the lossà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ making option contracts (Exhibit 1). So in effect, CAO coveredà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ up the losses that were realized when closing out the lossà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ making nearà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ dated options. Exhibit 1 It was unclear why the companys directors did not question or object to this contravention of regulations. The Audit Committee did not carry out its function of identifying and monitoring the financial risks involved in options trading, and investigating whether the risk management framework and safeguards were sufficient for dealing with the business. Follow-up Development Restructuring outcome: In response to the investigation results by PwC, CAO indicated in a press statement that it intended to form a committee to study the results and to recommend the company on specific remedial or disciplinary improvements. It also expressed the willingness to be more honest on past events and to move forward with the debt and equity restructuring exercise in a positive manner. The company then called for a creditor meeting to approve its latest debt restructuring plan on June 8. As far as I am concerned, with the resources of the parent company, both from the aspects of finance and entrepreneurship, the support from Chinese government, and the establishment of a strict risk management framework, CAO can still gain back confidence from stakeholders, which may need time and effort. Conclusion Improper application of accounting principles, lack of oversight, inadequate knowledge of market and ineffective risk management systems for the speculative options deal were the major contributing factors towards CAOs failure. We should learn a lesson from the case as factors are similar and equally applicable to different business contexts so it is important to avoid certain mistakes. References Li, S., Nadeem, M. (2010). Risk Management and Internal Control: A case study of China Aviation Oil Corporation Ltd. Farhan. (2016, April 10). China Aviation Oil (Singapore) Corporation Limiteds Jet Fuel Scandal (2005) Casestudy. Retrieved January 15, 2017, from https://financetrainingcourse.com/education/2014/04/china-aviation-oil-singapore-corporation-limiteds-jet-fuel-scandal-2005-casestudy/ Yeo, A. (2014). China Aviation(Singapore) Limited- Sliding down a Slippery Slope: The $550m Derivative Trading Loss on November 2004.

My Philosophy of Teaching :: Philosophy of Education Teachers Essays

My Philosophy of Teaching The decision to become a teacher was one that I made when I was in the ninth grade. When I entered high school I worked at a summer camp every year with disadvantaged children. The children ages ranged from six years old to sixteen years old. The feeling that I received when I saw that I could make a difference in their lives was so rewarding that I knew I wanted to become a teacher. I grew up as the youngest of six children, finishing high school was very important to my brothers and sisters, but finishing college was never really stressed to them by my mother. Three of my siblings went to college but they never completed college. For some reason my mom put more pressure on me than she did my siblings and said that I have no choice but to graduate from college. I sat out of school for several years in order to raise my son and my mom continued to tell me everyday that I needed to re enroll and complete my teaching degree. I feel that as minority it is very important for me to complete my teaching degree, there is a small percentage of minority teachers in the state of West Virginia. I feel that I will be a role model for children of my nationality and for all nationalities, by making a difference in their lives and showing them on a daily basis how important a good education is for all, and especially for minorities. From interacting with children and people in general, I know that most people learn easier from hands on interaction. When I become a teacher most of my lessons will deal with hands on learning. When you are doing something, it is easier to remember and it makes learning a lot more fun. I will also make sure that my classroom is very relaxed and stress free, I have been in school for many years and I know from experience that it is harder for children to learn when the teacher is mean and there is always tension in the classroom, this prevents students from asking questions, and ask ing for help, which means that it prevents them from learning. I definitely have the same beliefs as the philosopher Rousseau â€Å"Man is essentially good, a â€Å"noble savage† when in the â€Å"state of nature†, and that good people are made unhappy and corrupted by their experiences in society.

Group Case 3: Mci Communications Corp., 1983

Group Case 3: MCI Communications Corp. , 1983 Executive Summary Assumptions The following are the assumptions we made through the whole analysis. The predicted revenues from 1983 to 1990 were assumed to follow the pattern in Exhibit 9A, despite the uncertainty of the higher access charge and competition increase. The marginal tax rate is 30% during that period. The firm must keep minimal cash balance of $100 million to support its operating activities.However, the change of operating NWC is assumed to be zero. Calculation To calculate the external financing needs during the period 1983-1990, we need to calculate the net cash flow from operation (i. e. the free cash flow minus after tax-interest paid). Along with the cash at the beginning of the year and the required minimum cash balance, we can get the external financing need for each year. See detailed calculation in Exhibit 1.However, due to the uncertainty of access charge change and competition, the operating margin would increas e or decrease by as much as 7% from the prediction, although the management was committed to the predicted revenue levels. Therefore, the external financing needs would vary correspondingly. See detailed calculation in Exhibit 2, and 3. The external financing needs under three scenarios are summarized below. In 1983, the company had no external financing needs, as it just raised $400 million in March.From 1984 to 1987, the financing needs kept increasing, as the company tried to expand. After that, there was no external financing need as the earnings are in good levels, except in the case of unfavorable situation where it still needs $270. 78 million in 1988. [pic] Recommendations & Conclusion [pic] Exhibit 1 Operating Margin at Predicted levels [pic] Exhibit 2 Operating Margin Decreased by 7% [pic] Exhibit 3 Operating Margin Increased by 7%

Pollution Effects and Counter Measures Essay

The impact of human activity on our environment cannot be denied. Many aspects of today’s environmental problems are only now coming to light as scientists explore the causes and effects of human impact on the world around us. Today’s generation has seen both unwarranted skepticism and exaggeration on both sides of the debate on how close we are to an environmental catastrophe. Although, as Frederick Buell wrote, as of today our world â€Å"has not ended; eco-apocalypse hasn’t happened. Yet people today also accept the fact that they live in the shadow of environmental problems so severe that they constitute a crisis† (xii). While it is easier to understand the problems we face today by classifying human activity and its consequences into neatly defined, cause-and-effect relationships, it is important to realize that all of these causes and effects interact in a complex web to bring about an environmental crisis. That said, pollution is one of the most widespread results of human activity, encompassing a broad range of substances with pervasive effects. The effect of pollutants on our environment is one of the most widely publicized factors contributing to its degradation. And deservedly so; pollutants are diverse, and pollution takes many forms, but the effect of unchecked pollution is rapid, extensive, and often dramatic in its visual manifestations. Finally, in many cases pollution defies geographical and political boundaries, making it an international concern, and controlling it will require the involvement of citizens and organizations from all levels of society. Pollution involves the introduction of pollutants into the environment, and it is commonly organized into major categories – air, soil, and water – based on which component of the environment is affected. Other forms of pollution are classified based on the nature of the pollutant, and these include radiation pollution, biological pollution, and noise pollution. Scientists have developed many ways of gauging the level of pollution, or of a specific pollutant within the environment, but when one considers the direct impact of pollution on human health, it is exposure that matters more than the concentration of pollutants. In the environmental pathway, exposure to a certain concentration of a pollutant is what determines the actual dose of the pollutant in the exposed individual, and this is what leads to possible health consequences (Akbar et al., 62). In many cases, pollution is an occupational hazard, posing the greatest danger to people who suffer the most exposure as part of their daily lives. With some pollutants, however, the effects are indirect, not affecting an individual’s health, but impacting a society’s resources and economy in subtle ways. Even with the increased environmental awareness in modern society, it is surprising how many people still see nothing wrong simply because they are not directly affected by pollution. The purpose of this research is to give an overview of the different classes of pollution, how they affect society on different levels, and some of the measures that can help to prevent or reduce its spread. When one thinks of air pollution, perhaps the first image that comes to mind is that of a smog-filled skyline of a major city, through which a hazy sun barely shines. However, exposure to the outdoor smog in a polluted city is not the main source of pollutant dosage. Most of the actual human exposure to air pollution occurs indoors, simply because that is where most people spend most of their time (Akbar et al., 61). Just as the health risks of polluted water can be minimized by treatment, the risks posed by polluted air (namely, cardiovascular and respiratory disease) can be lessened by using proper filters within homes and offices. While it is possible to keep the indoor air quality under control, improving atmospheric air quality will require a collective effort on a much larger scale. Major sources of worldwide pollutant emissions are industrial operations, power plants, road vehicles, forest fires, and the incineration of refuse. Vehicular emissions are not only limited to exhaust, but also include emissions from the wear of tires and brakes and the road surface itself, which makes it difficult to come up with an accurate estimate of total vehicular emissions. Many of these sources of emissions are similarly difficult to quantify, but the overall statistics show that air pollution trends are higher in developing countries, and above the national average in megacities (Akbar et al., 36). This reflects a general trend of better environmental awareness, and environment protection programs that have been implemented for a longer time in well-developed, industrialized countries. For some pollutants, such as sulfur dioxide – a product of the combustion of fossil fuels – the global trend shows a decrease, but for other emissions there is no such evidence (Akbar et al., 49). Clearly, although industrialized countries like America have been consciously reducing some emissions for a longer time than other countries in the developing world, there is much that still needs to be done on an international level. Former United States Vice President Al Gore sums up the nature of the problem regarding the public attitude: †¦Our continued dependence of imported oil†¦is connected to the same pattern that leads us to put 70 million tons of global warming pollution into the earth’s atmosphere every 24 hours around the world, as if it was an open sewer. And pretending that that doesn’t have consequence, when there’s signs to tell us it definitely does†¦that’s really the essence of this problem. But because it’s so pervasive, in order to change it, we really have to have a sea change in public opinion in this country and around the world before the politicians and the government leaders in every nation will have the courage to do what really is necessary. (Interview with Al Gore, 2007) The second major category of pollution is soil pollution. The composition of soil is an important factor in an ecosystem, affecting what types of vegetation are able to take root and survive, and by extension, what species of animals will thrive in the area. Soil also retains water, and pollution of the soil often spreads to ground water tables. When soil is contaminated by pollutants – usually in the form of heavy metals that disrupt the balance and composition of the soil – it is often harder to detect, and difficult to determine the extent of the pollution. Such contamination typically results from direct deposition of pollutants into the soil. Landfills and waste heaps contain pollutants which gradually leach into the soil, and some of the particles in polluted air fall to the ground, where water runoff and seepage can spread the pollutants and lodge them into the soil. Operations in the mining industry, when improperly managed, can cause long-term damage to the soil, and to the environment as a whole. Jared Diamond cites Montana as a case study of the damage that the mining industry can do to the environment, saying it has â€Å"about 20,000 abandoned mines, some of them recent but many of them a century or more old, that will be leaking acid and†¦toxic metals essentially forever† (36). In most cases, these mines have no surviving owners, or the owners are financially unable to reclaim their property and manage its wastes. The relationship between the soil and the rest of the environment is complex, and much remains to be understood before a standard set of indicators and benchmarks can be used to monitor the quality of all soils. While these subtle relationships and interactions are being actively studied by scientists, land management can be improved and better implemented to lessen the impact of activities such as agriculture and mining, by regulating waste disposal and promoting sustainable agricultural practices. As an example, many farmers practice plowing their fields close to the edge of rivers or streams, and letting their livestock graze at the edge. This practice actually contributes to the erosion of riverbanks and diffusion of agricultural wastes into water. Careful management of land and soil resources can prevent soil erosion, which in turn will lessen the deposition of silt in freshwater areas that may be important habitats or breeding sites for species like salmon. (Environment Agency). Public pressure is necessary for the government to pass laws that will enforce mining companies to take charge of cleaning up their mines; the main responsibility lies with the American public, to be more active and vocal in protecting the environment (Diamond, 38). Water’s properties as a solvent are familiar to everyone, thus it should not be surprising that water is particularly vulnerable to contamination. The flow of bodies of water, as well as water runoff from precipitation, can disperse a high volume of pollutants over the course of a year. Water’s cycle in the environment has unique implications for the spread of pollution, and the various pollutants and contaminants of water comprise the third major category of pollution. Bodies of water can be polluted by point sources, such as sewage treatment plants, or they may be polluted through diffusion. Diffuse pollution can come from misconnected drains in households, leaching of surface wastes into groundwater, or runoff of toxic substances that have been deposited on land. Inland precipitation (in the form of rain) creates water runoff, which drains into larger bodies of water, carrying with it some deposited pollutants from the atmosphere and many untreated wastes that have been improperly disposed of. Oil from roadways and motor vehicles, excess agricultural fertilizer, and assorted litter from the land, can be washed into rivers and out to sea, where the scale of dispersal makes it very difficult to treat the pollution. In fact, the volume of pollution deposited by water from runoff can exceed that of an oil spill. In Puget Sound in the Pacific Northwest, for example, each year from 2000 to 2006 roughly 22,580 metric tons of oil and petroleum products are deposited by runoff, compared to less than 1,000 metric tons from direct oil spills (Dodge). The deterioration of water quality leads to obvious consequences for human consumption. Freshwater with excessive levels of certain pollutants becomes unsafe to drink, and seawater can lose its ability to sustain biodiversity, negatively impacting the fishing industry. Agricultural runoff contains nitrates and phosphates, which are important nutrients for many organisms, but in excessive concentrations in bodies of water they lead to explosions in the population of certain microorganisms (a phenomenon sometimes known as â€Å"algal blooms†). This leads to an overall decrease in dissolved oxygen content in the water, which harms other species, mainly fish, by disrupting spawning and breeding patterns, and can lead to massive deaths in certain species when oxygen levels are depleted (Environment Agency). Thermal pollution of water can occur when a large volume of water is used for cooling purposes in processes that release large amounts of heat. Electrical stations use water for this purpose, and subsequently release it into the environment. This water is considerably warmer than the rest of the water in the environment, and brings a corresponding rise in temperature to the entire body of water where it is released. This again reduces the capacity of water to hold dissolved oxygen, with the same effects described above (Lourenco and Neves). With most point sources of water pollution under regulation, the biggest source of water pollution is diffusion. If the source of pollution cannot be pinpointed, the processes that create or contribute to diffuse pollution have to be more strictly managed. Since 2003, European legislation has created a Water Framework Directive (WFD) to actively assess the standards of water usage with chemical, biological, and physical tests. The WFD monitors all bodies of water (including ground water reserves and artificial reservoirs) with the ultimate goal of reducing water pollution in the United Kingdom and all EU member states by 2015. The United Kingdom’s Environment Agency summarizes some of its recommendations: Key policy issues, such as the control of diffuse water pollution, land-use planning, the designation of heavily modified water bodies and the role of wetlands†¦must be addressed by relevant authorities. Particular emphasis should be placed on the diverse sources of diffuse pollution†¦These include discharges from agriculture and also from other land-uses such as urban developments, transport infrastructure and abandoned mineral workings. Those who manage the land may have to do things in a different way to ensure that they do not cause water pollution. (1) Some forms of pollution are not classified by the sphere of the environment that they contaminate, but by their nature and properties. Our planet is constantly bathed in radiation originating from outer space, and there are trace amounts of radioactivity scattered throughout the earth’s crust. These do not constitute radioactive pollution; typically, this form of pollution originates from nuclear power processing, or from equipment used in nuclear medicine and radiography, although nuclear fallout from bombs and disasters, such as the 1986 Chernobyl incident, is perhaps the most striking example of nuclear pollution. In the case of Chernobyl, flawed design of the nuclear reactor, combined with personnel errors, led to an explosion which released around 5% of the reactor’s core of radioactive material into the atmosphere. The wind carried fallout composed mainly of the radioisotopes iodine-131, cesium-134, and cesium 137, from the reactor across the former Soviet Union. Among the most heavily affected countries were Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia. The radioactive pollution’s immediate effect resulted in the death of 30 people, injury to over a hundred other individuals, and the immediate evacuation and relocation of over 200,000 affected citizens. One of the most studied long term effects of the disaster is a significant increase in the number of cases of thyroid cancer among generations of exposed individuals, due to the accumulation of radioactive iodine-131 in the thyroid gland (International Atomic Energy Agency). It should be noted that Chernobyl was a rare nuclear disaster that is not representative of the more common forms of radiation pollution; rather, it serves as an example of the potential scale and duration of pollution’s ill effects. Much more commonly encountered are the radiation-related risks in the medical field, where exposure to X-rays and radiotherapy practices can lead to an increased risk of developing certain cancers among some groups of patients. However, for the most part, properly observed medical standards will ensure that the risk of developing cancer from medical radiation is low – an estimated 0.05% per rem of radiation. The amount of exposure depends on the medical procedures involved, and although the increase in the risk of cancer induction is small (from zero to one percent), there is no threshold of radiation exposure below which it is absolutely risk-free. Thus, all procedures involving radiation exposure should be decided on the basis of risk versus benefit to the patient (Classic). Homo sapiens is the only species that has succeeded in domesticating other species, and with the spread of human civilization, we have carried our pets (and pests) to new lands. Introduced species constitute a form of biological pollution – when a non-native species establishes itself in an ecosystem, displacing certain native species that play a vital role in that ecosystem, and possibly causing economic damage, they are considered invasive. In ecology, the â€Å"rule of tens† states that one in every ten introduced species becomes invasive (Boudouresque and Verlaque, 1). The most significant direct consequence of biological invasion is the extinction of native species that are not adapted to compete with invaders. Such is the case with the Nile perch (Lates niloticus), a popular commercial fish species that was introduced to Lake Victoria in East Africa around the year 1962. The Nile perch disrupted the lake’s ecosystem by predatory activity, feeding on many native fish species, and spreading parasites which it carries in its gills. An estimated 300 fish species native to Lake Victoria were driven to extinction by the 1980s (Blake). While the Nile perch and some other invasive species have at least had some marginal economic benefit (a boost to the commercial fishing industry and local employment), in many cases the effect of biological invasion has been a complete economic disaster. Australia’s plague of introduced European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) has not only threatened native animals as the rabbits outcompete them for food and shelter; the rabbits have threatened the ecosystem itself by decimating vegetation, causing the soil (arid and fragile over much of Australia) to erode. This in turn has greatly reduced the available land for sheep and cattle grazing – two of Australia’s major industries. Efforts to reduce rabbit populations have only increased the economic cost of the rabbit invasion, as Australians have tried to use poison, traps, dynamite, and expensive biological control agents in the form of diseases such as myxomatosis and the calicivirus (Diamond, 392). Managing an invasion is very difficult once the invasive species has become established. As noted by Oregon State University biologist John Chapman, â€Å"Unlike other contaminants in the world, introduced species don’t have a half-life, they can spread from a single point source, and they have a potentially infinite life span† (qtd. in Reiber). An introduced species becomes established when conditions in the new environment are favorable, and it has little to no competition, and natural predators are lacking. Too often, strategies devised to control populations of invasive species backfire – the myxomatosis disease used to exterminate rabbits in Australia did succeed in bringing down the rabbit population by 90%, but the survivors then developed a resistance to the disease (Diamond, 392). Biological or chemical control agents used to eradicate invasive species often are detrimental to native species as well. In most cases, the safest way to remove invasive species from the environment is manually, which can be highly labor intensive and needs to be organized at the local or community level. Increased sound levels in our surroundings can constitute a form of noise pollution. While some people would classify certain genres or styles of music as noise, the most common form of noise pollution comes from transportation and industrial activity. Extreme levels of noise pollution can lead to a deterioration and eventual impairment of the auditory function in humans and other organisms. Noise pollution also affects individuals in other ways that may be less easy to measure or quantify; increasing levels of stress and annoyance, for example, or disruption of normal sleeping routines. States such as Maryland have implemented some form noise control; in Maryland, the Noise Control Program was passed into legislation in 1970, to provide technical assistance and enforcement regarding noise related issues across the state. It has been de-funded since July 2005, as the duty of regulating noise-related issues has been passed down to local government. There are many other forms of pollution that do not fit neatly into this broad classification, and to fully understand the effect of every pollutant would often require time-consuming research into various case studies. The interaction between different types of pollution often contributes to a complex effect acting on a larger scale, such as global warming, which is a phenomenon created by the interaction between the increased levels of various gases (known collectively as greenhouse gases). Pollution affects us on a global scale, but it can be reduced or remediated by efforts at the local and personal level. The easiest way to start contributing to the effort to reduce pollution is to minimize one’s own pollution of the environment. It is this diffuse type of pollution which is much more difficult to catch and trace. Individual citizens not disposing of their wastes properly, or households with misconnected drains, all have a small effect on pollution levels, and collectively this adds up to a large increase in pollution if unchecked or unreported. This is the pollution whose source is often unnoticed, and it is up to each individual to eliminate himself or herself as a source of this anonymous, unaccountable pollution. Many nonprofit organizations and agencies concerned with the welfare of our environment are engaged in activities to counter pollution and its effects. Participating in local community clean-up events can help to not only reduce the level of pollution in a community, but also heightens the awareness of people regarding pollution issues, especially if the organizers have invited an environmental expert to deliver a talk about problems relevant to the community. Recycling gadgets instead of throwing them away is a solution that helps both the consumers and the manufacturing industries. Sony Electronics, Inc. has a recycling program that accepts old or non-working Sony branded products free of charge, and even products of other companies for a small fee (On a higher level, government environmental agencies monitor the major point sources of pollution such as wastes disposed by large factories and industrial companies. With pollution’s far-reaching consequences, nations must help each other to remediate the worst polluted areas. An estimated 1 billion people are affected by pollution issues, and a majority of those people are in the developing world, where a general lack of awareness and local regulation of pollution has reduced the overall life expectancy and quality of life (Hanrahan et al., 2). With minimal financial investment, a number of remediation measures can be carried out in some of the worst polluted areas in the developing world. These measures will help save lives, particularly of children, at an estimated cost of only one to fifty US dollars per person each year. However, implementing such measures often takes a back seat to the basic needs of education and primary health services that local governments often must prioritize (Hanrahan et al., 2-4). This is why it is important to have international intervention and cooperation, not apathy and the selfish attitude summed up by ‘it’s someone else’s problem, let them take care of it’. In dealing with pollution it is important to keep in mind that many of the sources contributing to pollution are industries upon which modern society is dependent. Mining and agriculture are two examples of ancient activities that have helped men to develop their civilizations. Mining enabled us to build better shelters and construct the tools and implements that we use in everyday tasks. Agriculture and the potential to store surplus food has taken us from the lifestyle of hunter-gatherers and brought humans together in the first settlements, which eventually grew into cities and states. Pollution is a byproduct of these activities, and the effort to reduce or prevent pollution is not trying to destroy major industries or cease the production and development of new technology. It is an effort to make the producers and consumers responsible for the regulation of wastes created by these activities, and their proper management and disposal. We live in an age of awareness, and thanks to our awakening and gradual realization of how we affect the world around us, today’s environmental crisis has increasingly become a fact of life in the modern world. Modern governments should no longer be intent on debating the validity of environmental concerns, but focused on finding and implementing solutions. The root of these problems – human degradation of the environment and exploitation of its resources – has been at work ever since the dawn of the civilized age. The environmental crisis of the present, on both the global and local levels, is not a burden that we have borne for only a few generations; it is a result of centuries, even millennia, of human exploitation of available resources without the guidance of modern environmental science, accelerated by the industrialization brought about by developing technology, and abetted by attitudes and sensibilities that have developed in ignorance of how we impact our surroundings. The inertia of these outdated attitudes and accelerating industrial processes is huge and cannot be so easily stopped; it may take decades to realize the full extent of the damage we have done to the environment in every aspect, and perhaps longer to reverse the trend. But for many of us, the fundamental error in thinking has, at least, been corrected. Environmental problems elsewhere in the world are no longer just someone else’s concern. With modern globalization, what we do in our part of the world affects everyone else, and if we continue to act and think with that in mind, the environmental problems facing all of society will be managed by society as a whole. Works Cited â€Å"A slow-moving oil spill.† Ed. John Dodge. 01 December 2007. The Olympian. 04 December 2007 Akbar, S. et al. World Health Organization. Air Quality Guidelines Global Update 2005. Germany: Druckpartner Moser, 2005. Boudouresque CF, Verlaque M. Biological pollution in the Mediterranean Sea: invasive versus introduced macrophytes. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 2002 January; 44(1):32-8. Buell, Frederick. From Apocalypse to Way of Life: Four Decades of Environmental Crisis in the U.S. New York: Routledge, 2003. Diamond, Jared. Collapse. New York: Penguin Books, 2005. Environment Agency, 2003. The Water Framework Directive – not only a question of quality. Bristol: Environment Agency. Environment Agency, 2004. Soil, the hidden resource. Bristol: Environment Agency. Environment Agency, 2007. The unseen threat to water quality. Bristol: Environment Agency. Hanrahan, D. et al. Blacksmith Institute. Cost Effectiveness and Health Impact of Remediation of Highly Polluted Sites in the Developing World. 2007. International Atomic Energy Agency. Chernobyl’s Legacy: Health, Environmental and Socio-economic Impacts and Recommendations to the Governments of Belarus, the Russian Federation and Ukraine. Austria: IAEA, 2006. â€Å"Interview of Al Gore.† Larry King Live. CNN. 05 July 2007.   Ã¢â‚¬Å"Invasion Biology Introduced Species Summary Project.† Ed. Jennifer Blake. 10 January 2005. Columbia University. 02 December 2007 http://www.columbia.edu/itc/cerc/danoff-burg/invasion_bio/inv_spp_summ/Lates_niloticus.htm> John, E. M. et al. Medical radiation exposure and breast cancer risk: findings from the Breast Cancer Family Registry. International Journal of Cancer: 2007 July; 121(2):386-94. â€Å"Link Between Climate Change and Biological Pollution could Harm Northwest.† Ed. Derek Reiber. 02 July 2001. Sightline Institute. 02 December 2007 â€Å"Noise Pollution Control.† 2007. Maryland Department of the Environment. 05 December 2007 Path: Programs; Multimedia Programs; Noise Pollution Control. â€Å"Pollution and its effect to the environment: Interview with Ricky Clancy of Sony Electronics Blog.† 27 September 2007. 05 December 2007. â€Å"Risk/Benefit of Medical Radiation Exposures.† Ed. Kelly Classic. 04 December 2007. Health Physics Society. 04 December 2007 Path: HPS Publications; Articles. â€Å"Thermal Pollution.† Ed. Silvia Lourenco and Rute Neves. 05 December 1996. Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. 04 December 2007 United States Environmental Protection Agency. Noise: A Health Problem. Washington, 1978

Is Grade Inflation inHigh School Real

Is Grade Inflation inHigh School Real SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips High school grades are very important in the college application process, but they may not always be the most accurate reflection of a student’s abilities. Grade inflation is a problem in many high schools, and it can result in issues down the line in terms of college performance and admissions chances. In this article, I’ll go through what grade inflation is and how it affects you as a high school student. What Is Grade Inflation? Unfortunately, grade inflation is not when your teacher decides to give you a balloon with your grade written on it instead of a report card (that would be kind of nice because even if you did badly, hey, a balloon).Grade inflation is when average grades are skewed artificially high because class assessments are too easy and/or teachers are too lenient. If grades are inflated because a teacher is an easy grader, the average grade for a class will not accurately reflect the quality of the students’ work.A student might get an A on a project that really deserved no more than a B.If grades are inflated because a teacher gives easy assignments, the average grade will only reflect students’ ability to complete simple tasks and not an understanding of the complexities of the material.Often, both of these problems are present at once in the case of classes that have severe grade inflation. Grade inflation happens for several reasons.High schools want to look good in comparison to other schools with less grade inflation, so it’s beneficial for them to give out high grades even if those grades are not fully earned.This makes the student body look more high-achieving and the teachers appear more effective.Some teachers may also avoid giving low grades because kids and parents will complain and make more trouble for the teacher than it’s worth. Teachers might also give higher grades to students who haven’t fully earned them because they don’t want to ruin students’ chances for college or prevent them from participating in extracurricular activities.Since a much higher percentage of students attend college nowadays, it makes sense that average grades have risen significantly.A decent GPA is critical if a student hopes to be accepted to college, and teachers don’t want to ruin anyone’s future. Grade inflation? Is Grade Inflation a Problem in High Schools? Overall, yes, grade inflation is an ongoing issue in high schools.This is not to say that all grades in high school are inflated; situations vary significantly from school to school and also between classes in the same schools.Based on the data, however, we can see a general trend towards higher average high school grades over the years. From 1990 to 2009, average high school GPA increased by .33 points for female students (from a 2.77 to a 3.1) and .31 points for male students (from a 2.59 to a 2.9). In 2007, the National Household Education Survey reported that 81% of high school students receive mostly As and Bs in their classes.The average high school GPA is now around a 3.0, which translates to a B average. High schools don’t want to look like they’re performing poorly in comparison to the competition, so they may give students more slack to avoid high numbers of failing grades or a larger percentage of dropouts. Is Grade Inflation a Problem at Colleges? It’s not just high schools that struggle with grade inflation.Colleges are even worse offenders, and it’s often the most selective colleges that have the biggest problems with grade inflation.The average GPA at four-year colleges is around a 3.1, but grades may be more or less inflated based on the school you attend and the major you study.For example, the average GPA for education majors is a 3.36 while the average GPA for chemistry majors is a 2.78.Overall, humanities majors have higher GPAs on average.As I mentioned, highly selective private colleges tend to have the worst grade inflation. The average GPA at Stanford is a 3.55!You can learn more about average college GPAs in this article. Grade inflation is more of a problem in college for several reasons.Professors are sometimes judged based on student feedback, and students who earn poor grades often blame the professor or criticize the class in retaliation. This happens mostly with adjunct professors who have semester-long contracts that may or may not be renewed based on their performance. Bad reviews can be very harmful to new professors who are vulnerable in their careers. Students and parents also expect high grades so that they can feel like they’re getting the most for their money (this partially explains why expensive private colleges have more problems with grade inflation).Professors also don’t want to ruin students’ chances in the job world or the graduate school application process.Since the world has normalized Bs as average, giving out lower grades can do a lot of damage to a student’s future. I THINK this book is satire, but I'm not totally sure. Some people have a weird fascination with preppiness.Also, what's more inflated at private schools? The grades or the egos? Zing! What Are the Consequences of Grade Inflation? Grade inflation in high schools has numerous positive and negative repercussions for students.It is a problematic trend in general, but it can provide some benefits to students who are struggling. The Positives: More Students Have a Chance of Attending College Grade inflation in a high school means that more students will have good GPAs and better chances of attending higher education institutions.Of course, since colleges know that grade inflation exists, many have adopted higher admissions standards. However,in schools with grade inflation, more students will meet the bare minimum requirements for getting into college. Students with GPAs that are above a 2.0 (or a C average) in high school can usually expect to be admitted to at least one less selective college as long as their test scores aren’t extremely low.This means that even students who perform at a level significantly below average in high school have a chance of attending college.Some students end up doing much better in college than in high school because they’re more interested in what they’re studying and are less distracted by problems at home. Students Are Less Likely to Give Up on Education If you’re failing a class, it can be tempting to say â€Å"I’m not cut out for this† and stop trying or drop out of school completely.Since teachers are giving out fewerfailing grades, this is less common now than it was even twenty years ago.The overall high school dropout rate fell from 12 percent in 1990 to just 6 percent in 2013. Earning a high school diploma at minimum is very important for future employment prospects.Many students who otherwise would have failed out of school may have access to a more promising future because of various forms of grade inflation.This is not to say that the lowering of the dropout rate is solely due to grade inflation.Grade inflation is just one of the contributing factors to a positive educational trend. Your kindergarten diploma can only get you so far. You have to know the names of WAY more shapes to function in the adult world. The Negatives: It’s Harder for Top Students to Stand Out When grade inflation is an issue, it means that it’s more difficult to differentiate between students.Since so many people get high grades, it can be hard to separate relatively average students from excellent students.Grades only go up so high, and if you lower the ceiling, more people are going to be able to reach it.This can be harmful because it prevents students with lots of potential from distinguishing themselves and may damage their chances of getting into selective colleges.Grade inflation gives even the highest grades less significance in the eyes of admissions officers. Colleges Have to Rely More Heavily on Test Scores If admissions officers notice that a high school has GPA distribution patterns that indicate grade inflation (like a higher than normal percentage of students earning As in most of their classes), it’s hard for them to separate the average students from the great students without using test scores.This means that the admissions decision will rely less on GPA and more on test scores, which can be detrimental for some students. For example, a student might be very academically driven but earn a mediocre standardized test score because they didn’t have time to prep effectively.This student would be penalized by grade inflation because their high GPA wouldn’t mean as much in the eyes of colleges.He or shewould be seen as a less qualified applicant than other students with slightly higher scores but average academic ability masked by grade inflation. Colleges are looking for quality, and test scores are an easy way for them to make judgments. Every admissions office is also haunted by a strange blue and white figure known only as "The Gradient." Sometimes when they work late, admissions officers can hear him whisper "quality" softly into their ears. Schools With Less Grade Inflation May Be Penalized One of the reasons why grade inflation has continued to rise is because schools fear that they will fall behind if they don’t conform to new GPA standards.Students at a school with severe grade inflation may look better on paper to colleges than students at a school without grade inflation even if both groups have exactly the same ability level.This means that schools are pressured to adopt lower standards for high grades so that they can maintain a good reputation and avoid putting their students at a disadvantage. Students Are More Unprepared for College When high school grades are inflated, students end up with a skewed idea of the amount of effort they need to put into their schoolwork in order to get good grades.They may be earning high grades for work that is barely up to the basic standards at some colleges. This can lead to a very tough academic adjustment period at the beginning of college.Students are often discouraged when they find that they can’t get the same results in college classes as they did in high school.They may not know how to study or write effectively because their growth in these areas was stunted by classes in high school that were too easy. Unprepared students vs. the college workload: a truly Sisyphean journey How Can You Tell If Your School Has Grade Inflation, and What Should You Do About It? It should be relatively easy to figure out whether your high school is a part of the grade inflation trend. If you look up the average GPA for your school online and find that it's a 3.0 or higher, your school has a higher than average rate of grade inflation. This also depends on whether your school uses weighted or unweighted GPAs. If it uses weighted GPAs, it's reasonable to expect the average GPA to be slightly higher. If your school has problems with grade inflation, don't worry too much about making big changes to your academic strategies. However, there are certain things that are even more important for students who go to high schools with significant grade inflation. Taking difficult classes is always a good idea if you hope to be admitted to selective colleges, but it's even more critical at this type of high school. If most students' grades are artificially high, the best way to show that you're a cut above is to take the most demanding courses you can. Even if grade inflation is a problem, high grades in these courses will carry significantly more weight with colleges and will show that you went the extra mile to challenge yourself. Standardized test scores are also more important if you go to a school with grade inflation. If colleges can't fully trust your grades to give them an accurate picture of your academic abilities, they will look more closely at your test scores. It's a good idea to prepare extensively for the SAT or ACT so that you end up with an impressive score that validates your high GPA. Go forth and conquer the college application process! Also, if you recognize the hairy arm in this picture, please notify the police - this guy is wanted for the murder of the Sun. Conclusion Grade inflation is a problem in high schools across the country.The average grades of high school students have risen significantly over the past twenty years.This is a result of increased competition amongst high schools as more students go on to attend college. Avoiding handing out bad grades is often advantageous for the administration, but it can hurt students down the road in some cases.Although grade inflation may allow more students to attend college, it also means that they're underprepared and are judged less accurately in the admissions process.Grade inflation makes it difficult for admissions officers to assess student abilities and reach validconclusions. Grade inflation may or may not be a big problem at your high school. To combat its negative effects, keep challenging yourself academically, and don't get too comfortable with an easy A! What's Next? Are you concerned about your academic performance in high school? Here's a step by step guide to calculating your GPA based on your grades so farand some advice on how to improve before you apply to college. How do you know if your GPA is good enough? Check out this article to find out what a good or bad GPA might mean for you. You can also read our expert guide on which classes you should take in high school to learn more about structuring your schedule. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points?We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

Free Essays on Deconstruction Of Nationalism In Pakistan

When Pakistan came into being in 1947, it was envisioned as a state wherein the Muslims of the subcontinent could live together as one united nation, irrespective of caste or colour, and free of the tyranny that the Hindu majority of India would have subjected them to. Subsequent events in history have gone on to show, however, that the Two-Nation Theory that provided the ideological basis for the partition of the subcontinent was not sufficient to bind the people of Pakistan together in the face of the tremendous influence wielded by such primordial identities as ethnicity and caste. Indeed, in its fifty years, Pakistani society and national integration have been repeatedly challenged by the forces of ethno-nationalism and separatism, forces which have effectively challenged the premise upon which Pakistan was created – that the Muslims of India were one nation. One does not have to think very hard to recall instances of such challenges to the integrity of the Pakistani nation. Be it the Jeeya Sindh movement of the 1960’s and 1970’s, the Baluch Civil War from 1973-77, or even the Pukhtoonistan issue, we see ethnic cleavages in Pakistani society that have endured even in the face of a tremendous ideological assault launched by the state. Indeed, the events of 1971 and those leading up them re perhaps the biggest example of how the two-nation theory has failed Pakistan in terms of defining the identity of its populace. Popular intellectual discourse on the subject of National Integration has often critiqued the Two-Nation Theory and the very roots of the Pakistan Movement. Renowned Pakistano scholars like Hamza Alavi and Ayesha Jalal have argued that the Pakistan movement was spearheaded by elites from the Muslim minority provinces of India who feared a loss of prestige and economic strength in the event of Indian independence. Their basic argument revolves around how the Two-Nation theory became a tool of political expediency d... Free Essays on Deconstruction Of Nationalism In Pakistan Free Essays on Deconstruction Of Nationalism In Pakistan When Pakistan came into being in 1947, it was envisioned as a state wherein the Muslims of the subcontinent could live together as one united nation, irrespective of caste or colour, and free of the tyranny that the Hindu majority of India would have subjected them to. Subsequent events in history have gone on to show, however, that the Two-Nation Theory that provided the ideological basis for the partition of the subcontinent was not sufficient to bind the people of Pakistan together in the face of the tremendous influence wielded by such primordial identities as ethnicity and caste. Indeed, in its fifty years, Pakistani society and national integration have been repeatedly challenged by the forces of ethno-nationalism and separatism, forces which have effectively challenged the premise upon which Pakistan was created – that the Muslims of India were one nation. One does not have to think very hard to recall instances of such challenges to the integrity of the Pakistani nation. Be it the Jeeya Sindh movement of the 1960’s and 1970’s, the Baluch Civil War from 1973-77, or even the Pukhtoonistan issue, we see ethnic cleavages in Pakistani society that have endured even in the face of a tremendous ideological assault launched by the state. Indeed, the events of 1971 and those leading up them re perhaps the biggest example of how the two-nation theory has failed Pakistan in terms of defining the identity of its populace. Popular intellectual discourse on the subject of National Integration has often critiqued the Two-Nation Theory and the very roots of the Pakistan Movement. Renowned Pakistano scholars like Hamza Alavi and Ayesha Jalal have argued that the Pakistan movement was spearheaded by elites from the Muslim minority provinces of India who feared a loss of prestige and economic strength in the event of Indian independence. Their basic argument revolves around how the Two-Nation theory became a tool of political expediency d...

A Timeline of the History of Alcohol

A Timeline of the History of Alcohol The history of alcohol and humans is at least 30,000 and arguably 100,000 years long. Alcohol, a flammable liquid produced by the natural fermentation of sugars, is currently the most widely used human psychoactive agent around the world today, ahead of nicotine, caffeine, and betel nut. It was made and consumed by prehistoric societies in six of the seven continents (not Antarctica), in a variety of forms based on a variety of natural sugars found in grains and fruits.   Alcohol Timeline: Consumption The earliest possible moment that humans consumed alcohol is conjecture. The creation of alcohol is a natural process, and scholars have noted that primates, insects, and birds partake in (accidentally) fermented berries and fruit. While there is no direct evidence that our ancient ancestors also drank fermented liquids, it is a possibility we should consider. 100,000 years ago (theoretically): At some point, Paleolithic humans or their ancestors recognized that leaving fruit in the bottom of a container for an extended period of time leads naturally to alcohol-infused juices. 30,000 BCE: Some scholars interpret the abstract parts of Upper Paleolithic cave art as the work of shamans, religious specialists who were attempting to connect with natural forces and supernatural beings. Shamans work under altered states of consciousness (ASC), which can be created by chanting or fasting or aided by pyschotropic drugs, like alcohol. Some of the earliest cave paintings suggest activities of shamans; some scholars have suggested they reached ASC using alcohol. Laussel Venus, Upper Paleolithic Bas-Relief, Aquitaine Museum, Bordeaux, France. Apic / Hulton Archive / Getty Images 25,000 BCE: The Venus of Laussel, found in a French Upper Paleolithic cave, is a carved representation of a woman holding what looks like a cornucopia or a bison horn core. Some scholars have interpreted it as a drinking horn. 13,000 BCE: To intentionally make fermented beverages, one needs a container where they may be stored during the process, and the first pottery was invented in China at least 15,000 years ago. 10,000 BCE: Grape pips attest to possible wine consumption at Franchthi Cave in Greece. 9th millennium BCE: The earliest domesticated fruit was the fig tree, 8th millennium BCE: The domestication of rice and barley, crops used for the production of fermented alcohol, occurred about 10,000 years ago. Production Alcoholic substances have intoxicating, mind-altering properties that might have been restricted to elites and religious specialists, but they were also used in the maintenance of social cohesion in the context of feasting available to everyone in a community.  Some herb-based beverages may have been used for medicinal purposes as well. 7000 BCE: The earliest evidence of wine production comes from jars at the Neolithic site of Jiahu in China, where residue analysis has identified a fermented concoction of rice, honey and fruit. 5400–5000 BCE: Based on the recovery of tartaric acid in ceramic vessels, people produced resinated wine, such as that on a fairly large scale at Hajji Firuz Tepe, Iran. 4400–4000 BCE: Grape pips, empty grape skins, and two-handled cups at the Greek site of Dikili Tash are the earliest evidence for wine production in the Aegean Sea region. 4000 BCE: A platform for crushing grapes and a process to move crushed grapes to storage jars are evidence of wine production at the Armenian site of Areni-1. Ubaid Pottery from Susa, Iran, 4th millennium BCE, Musà ©e National de Cà ©ramique, Sà ªvres, France. Siren-Com 4th millennium BCE: By the beginning of the 4th millennium BCE, wine and beer were produced in many locations in Mesopotamia, Assyria and Anatolia (such as the Ubaid site of Tepe Gawra) and treated as a trade and elite luxury good. At the same time, Predynastic Egyptian tomb paintings and wine jars are evidence of the local production of herb-based beers. 3400–2500  BCE: The predynastic community of Hierankopolis in Egypt had a large number of barley- and wheat-based brewery installations. Alcohol as a Trade Good It is difficult to draw the line globally for the production of wine and beer explicitly for trade. It seems clear that alcohol was both an elite substance and one with ritual significance, and the liquids as well as the technology of making them was shared and traded across cultures fairly early on. 3150 BCE: One of the rooms of the tomb of Scorpion I, the earliest of the dynastic kings of Egypt, was stuffed with 700 jars believed to have been made and filled with wine in the Levant and shipped to the king for his consumption. 3300–1200 BCE: Wine consumption is in evidence, used in ritual and elite contexts in Early Bronze Age sites in Greece, including both Minoan and ​Mycenaean cultures. Fu Yi Gong wine vessel from the Late Shang Dynasty (13th–11th century BCE) at the Shanghai Museum, China. Tim Graham / Getty Images 1600–722 BCE: Cereal based alcohol are stored in sealed bronze vessels of Shang (ca. 1600-1046 BCE), and Western Zhou (ca. 1046-722 BCE) dynasties in China. 2000–1400 BCE: Textual evidence demonstrates that barley and rice beers, and others made from a variety of grasses, fruits and other substances, were produced in the Indian subcontinent at least as long ago as the Vedic period. 1700–1550 BC: Beer based on the locally domesticated sorghum grain is manufactured and becomes ritually important in the Kerma dynasty of the Kushite kingdom of present-day Sudan. 9th century BCE: Chicha beer, made from a combination of maize and fruit, is a significant part of feasting and status differentiation throughout South America.   8th century BCE: In his classic tales The Iliad and The Odyssey, Homer prominently mentions the wine of Pramnos. When [Circe] had got [the Argonauts] into her house, she set them upon benches and seats and mixed them a mess with cheese, honey, meal, and Pramnian wine, but she drugged it with wicked poisons to make them forget their homes, and when they had drunk she turned them into pigs by a stroke of her wand and shut them up in her pig-sties. Homer, The Odyssey, Book X 8th–5th centuries BCE: The Etruscans produce the first wines in Italy; according to Pliny the Elder, they practice wine blending and create a muscatel type beverage. 600 BCE: Marseilles is founded by the Greeks who brought wines and vines to the great port city in France.   Iron and Gold Drinking Horn of the Celtic Chieftain at Hochdorf, on display at Kunst der Kelten, Historisches Museum Bern. Rosemania 530–400 BCE: Grain beers and mead produced in central Europe, such as barley beer at Iron Age Hochdorf in what is today Germany. 500–400 BCE: Some scholars, such as F.R. Alchin, believe that the first distillation of alcohol might have occurred as early as this period in India and Pakistan. 425–400 BCE: Wine production at the Mediterranean port of Lattara in southern France marks the beginning of the wine industry in France. 4th century BCE: The Roman colony and competitor of Carthage in North Africa has an extensive trade network of wine (and other goods) all over the Mediterranean region, including a sweet wine made from sun-dried grapes.   4th century BCE: According to Plato, strict laws in Carthage forbid the drinking of wine for magistrates, jury members, councilors, soldiers, and ships pilots while on duty, and for slaves at any time.   Widespread Commercial Production The empires of Greece and Rome are largely responsible for the international commercialization of the trade in many different goods, and specifically in the production of alcoholic beverages. 1st–2nd centuries BCE: The Mediterranean wine trade explodes, bolstered by the Roman empire. 150 BCE–350 CE: Distillation of alcohol is a common practice in in northwest Pakistan.   92 CE: Domitian forbids the planting of new vineyards in the provinces because the competition is killing the Italian market. Roman pavement mosaic depicting the god Bacchus at the Genazzano Villa in Rome, Antonine dynasty, 138–193 CE.   Werner Forman / Archive/Heritage Images / Getty Images 2nd century CE: Romans begin cultivating grapes and producing wine in Mosel valley of Germany and France becomes a major wine-producing region. 4th century CE: The process of distillation is (possibly re-)developed in Egypt and Arabia. 150 BCE–650 CE: Pulque, made from fermented agave, is used as a dietary supplement at the Mexican capital city of Teotihuacan. 300–800 CE: At Classic period Maya feasts, participants consume balche (made from honey and bark) and chicha (maize-based beer).   500–1000 CE: Chicha beer becomes a significant element of feasting for the Tiwanaku in South America, evidenced in part by the classic kero form of flared drinking goblet.   13th century CE: Pulque, an alcoholic beverage made from fermented agave, is part of the Aztec state in Mexico. 16th century CE: Production of wine in Europe moves from monasteries to merchants. Selected Sources Anderson, Peter. Global Use of Alcohol, Drugs . Drug 25.6 (2006): 489–502. Print.and andTobacco Alcohol ReviewDietler, Michael. Alcohol: Anthropological/Archaeological Perspectives. Annual Review of Anthropology 35.1 (2006): 229–49. Print.McGovern, Patrick E. Uncorking the Past: The Quest for Beer, Wine and Other Alcoholic Beverages. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009. Print.McGovern, Patrick E., Stuart J. Fleming, and Solomon H. Katz, eds. The Origins and Ancient History of Wine. Philadelphia: The University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, 2005. Print.McGovern, Patrick E., et al. Fermented Beverages of Pre- and Proto-Historic China. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 101.51 (2004): 17593–98. Print.Meussdoerffer, Franz G. A Comprehensive History of Beer Brewing. Handbook of Brewing. Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH Co. KGaA, 2009. 1–42. Print.Stika, Hans-Peter. Beer in Prehistoric Europe. Liquid Bread: Beer and Brewi ng in Cross-Cultural Perspective. Eds. Schiefenhovel, Wulf and Helen Macbeth. Vol. 7. The Anthropology of Food and Nutrition. New York: Berghahn Books, 2011. 55–62. Print. Surico, Giuseppe. The Grapevine and Wine Production through the Ages. Phytopathologia Mediterranea 39.1 (2000): 3–10. Print.

Marketing assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Marketing assignment - Essay Example We are now in an age where taking care of children is already a shared responsibility and as such, she should widen her segmentation to include the husband as well. Instead of just women, she should target both the mother and father who shares the parenting responsibility. Such, the best market for Trap-Ease are parents and not solely women. Martha should also capitalized on the non-poison aspect of controlling the mouse problem. Such, she should also target the environmentalist who are concerned with the use of poison in controlling the rodents as it contributes to global warming. Companies and industrial sites should also be targeted as they too have a pest issue to contend. The specification of Trap-Ease suits them as the product is well-designed that its aesthetics will fit the corporate and industrial setting. 4) Describe the current marketing mix for Trap-Ease. Do you see any problems with this mix? For the marketing mix of introducing her product to its target market, Martha h as Trap-Ease as a product. Her pricing seems to be okay because there is no apparent price resistance with the product. Given the cost that she needs to recoup, it is not advisable for her to cut its price but she just have to work on the scale of her sales.

The War of 1812 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The War of 1812 - Essay Example A lot of incidents related to the war also happened in the sea. Background Events Leading to the War: The war was instigated in 1783 after the termination of American Revolution. That was a time when US was irritated with Britain’s lack of consent to ratify commercial agreements in favor of America and Britain’s failure to retreat from the territory of America alongside the Great Lakes. The French Revolutionary Wars that happened between 1792 and 1802 and the Napoleonic Wars that started after that and continued till 1815 flared up American resentment. France and Britain were the primary contestants in these wars. With the passage of time, France dominated most of Europe. On the other hand, Britain ruled over the seas. France and Britain had commercial fights with each other in which Britain tried to blockade Europe while France did all to make sure that British goods were not sold in the French possessions. The maritime policies of Britain and France indulged into seve ral conflicts with the US in the 1790s. The difficulties became intense and grew manifolds after 1803. The British Orders in Council of 1807 tried to channel all neutral trade to continental Europe through Great Britain, and France's Berlin and Milan decrees of 1806 and 1807 declared Britain in a state of blockade and condemned neutral shipping that obeyed British regulations. (gatewayno.com, n.d.). Causes of the War: US felt that her rights upon seas were being subdued by France and Britain. Because of British dominance upon the seas, the British maritime policies were more disliked. British felt that it was their right to the British sailors with them from the merchant ships of America. In their haste, they took many Americans with them as well. This was the fundamental cause of tension between the two countries. There were numerous causes of the war. There was war going on between Great Britain and France in the early 1800s. In that war, England fell short of skilled sailors. In order to make up for the deficiency of sailors, Great Britain started stopping American ships and forcefully took sailors from them. In addition to that, Great Britain forbade US from entering into any trade with France. According to the Treaty of Paris (1783), Great Britain was supposed to remove her soldiers from the American territory, though she continued occupying US territory. A vast majority of the British soldiers remained along the Great Lakes and offered full support to Indians like Tecumseh, the Shawnee leader so that they may fully revolt against the American settlers. Proceedings of the War: US first tried to alter the European powers’ policies economically. The British ship Leopard attacked Chesapeake, which was an American frigate in 1807. At that time, Congress placed a ban upon American ships from trade by passing the Embargo Act. As a result of that, New England shipping was devastated but the French and British policies were left unaltered. Americans were i n the economic depression and were distressed. They resolved to commence the war in order to restore national honor. In 1810, the Congress was elected. In November, 1811, the War Hawks joined the Congress and asked to commence war against Great Britain. As a result of the aforementioned attempts by Great Britain all of which went against the interests of US, President James Madison convinced the Congress to declare war upon Great Britain in 1812. Battles of the War: In 1812,

Health and Safety at work course work Coursework

Health and Safety at work course work - Coursework Example Thus Planning-I consists of five separate entities that are deeply interlinked. VISION OF PLANNING 1:- Keeping house in efficient and productive order, set timelines for every project, pursue relentlessly, while onus of every project is with a specific person. To be a success story, Planning – I Wing will work on the motto of ‘Reach out to all, net and tune well domestically within ERRA and beyond in the sister Organizations, Institutions and Ministries for the collective well being of the Earthquake (EQ) affected people and good reputation of ERRA’. Achievements have no limits, efforts have no bounds. Field is vast open. Let everyone see and judge, who runs the fastest and for how long. CHANNELS FOR COMMUNICATION: - The channels that are used in the wing are mainly the documentation accompanied by the verbal communication. The following are the modes of communications. 1) DOCUMENTATION AND APPROVALS: - Any new project to be implemented or any alteration or advanc ements in the projects conducted by the ERRA are documented properly. And the approvals for all the activities are approved by bottom approach. 2) STAFF AND EMPLOYEE MEETINGS: - All the staff meetings and employee meetings are being conducted in a regular manner depending upon the sensitivity of the projects. These meetings are conducted in the same departments or rather with collaborative department of choice as per the requirements. 3) INTERNET AND EMAIL NOTIFICATION:- Most of the notifications are given to the department via email notifications and phone calls directly. So there is a strictness to check the emails notifications daily so that every person must be updated with the current situation regularly. 4) FAX: - If there is a meeting or any negotiations or problems that need the communication with other department, then there is a three way communication procedure that includes fax along with telephone and email notification. 5) VERBAL: - Also there is a way communication by the direct boss to the employee verbally if he or she has to notify something or there is any important issue that needs discussion. HASAWA IMPLEMENTATION:- Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974 promotes the safety and health at workplace and it is very effective in promoting the good health. It involves the duties imposed on employers, employees, contractors, suppliers of goods and substances for use at work, persons that are in control of work premises, and those who has a charge to manage and maintain them, and persons in general. So the duties of the HASAWA are applied on all of the employees and all other important persons that can contribute even a pinch towards promoting good health or violating health regulations. BEST CHANNEL TO PROMOTE HASAWA IN THE DEPARTMENT:- The best way to aware people and to implement HASAWA is through telecommunication and workshops. The reason for this channel is due to the reason that in Pakistan, there is shortage of electricity and there is m uch obvious that the electricity is not a reliable source for notification for any activity or information. So emails could be unreliable in this case which could be a big problem. And also the telecommunication is not much expensive in Pakistan and here there is lot of networks giving many cost effective packages. As

How to engage all parents into my classroom Research Paper

How to engage all parents into my classroom - Research Paper Example In a child's education, it is beneficial for all parents to be actively involved. Communicating with Parents Communication is a fundamental aspect when it comes to engaging parents in the classroom. This is because parents need the information concerning their children for suitable advice or action. Therefore, the school should set up appropriate ways that will ensure communication flows from the school staffs to the parents. Establishing various communication channels will ensure clear communication between the teachers and the parents. These channels include; formal and informal conversations through individual meetings, parents-teacher meetings, seminars and school events, agenda books that allow the teachers to write comments about the student’s behavior and academic performance and flyers bearing the teacher’s contact information. Phone calls can be made directly to the parents to inform them of their children’s academic performance and behavior. ... The school should organize these educational opportunities but let the parents manage them. Parents can alternate roles and duties thus attracting more parents to contribute in the classes. This will provide an opportunity for the parents to interact with their children and the school staffs thus helping them engage in constructive activities. The classes can be organized in collaboration with relevant community organizations for example, if the topic is on health, community health organizations can be mobilized to offer insight (CDC, 2012). Parents can be involved in workshops and seminars on similar topics. Decision-making is a crucial role in a school, therefore, involving parents in it shows that the school’s leadership wants to invest in the parents. The parents see it as a partnership urging them to encourage their children and participate more in their schoolwork. Therefore, parents will be actively involved in the school’s activities after finding out that they are the decision makers (School Learning Support Program, 2010). Offering Volunteer Opportunities The school should organize volunteer activities and invite parents to participate in them by providing suitable positions. These activities assist in fostering free communication and interaction between the parents, the children and the school staff. Through these fun activities, parents can casually engage the teachers in conversations that would seem inappropriate for formal events. Some of the activities include; weekend games, environmental walks or tree planting events, feeding programs for the disabled or the homeless, after-school activities like aerobics, karate and cheerleading. Activities that can help enhance the skills of the students can also be incorporated for

UK's Court's Equitable Jurisdiction in Inheritance Tax Matters Essay

UK's Court's Equitable Jurisdiction in Inheritance Tax Matters - Essay Example Since the medieval period, the equity principles in UK have emerged poignantly through the process of chains of various forms of the writ, conceived by the Lords Chancellor. UK courts have applied equitable jurisdiction through the forms of rescission, injunctions, specific performance and through rectification or reversion. An equitable remedy can be explained as a relief or remedy by recognising a loss suffered by an infringement of duty and demanding the fiduciary to make an order for compensation for the loss suffered as held in Target Holdings v Redferns. The court can order to pay monetary damages which are known as â€Å"equitable compensation.† The fundamental principle of the equitable jurisdiction is the concept that it functions or acts in personam. The meaning of in personam can be explained how the Court of Equity is more worried to stop any given individual from functioning unconscionably. Thus, a Court of Equity is therefore giving a verdict, footed on the verac ity of the facts unreasonably or not knowingly. If the defendant does not stop or carryout the court orders, then such person would be held as committed a contempt of court. In East v Pantiles Plant Hire Ltd , the court was asked to consider the background on which reversion or overhaul can be ordered as regards to a deed. In this case, Brightman J observed it is obvious on the officials that an error in a written deed, could, in some scenarios, be ordered to be corrected as an issue of drafting without applying for an order from a court for an order of rectification. To be eligible under this rule, it is necessary to fulfil the following two stipulations namely there should be an apparent and obvious error on the face of the deed, and it must be obvious what rectification has to be made so as to rectify the error. As a matter of construction, if the above two conditions are fulfilled, then such rectification is made. (Marshall2007: 90). Mistake of Fact In â€Å"Ogden, v Trustees of the RHS Griffiths 2003 Settlement†3, the trustees were delegated with revisionary interests in certain shares by the deceased grantor. When executing the deed, the gra ntor was of the opinion that his health was good and hence, he had a reasonable opportunity for living for at least seven years. As under Inheritance Tax Act 1984, if a gift is made, the grantor should live at least for seven years from the date of granting the gift. It is to be noted that after the expiry of seven years, there will be no inheritance tax on the assets so gifted to family members. However, Griffith was actually diagnosed with lung cancer and died after one year after the execution of the gift. Executors contended that a mistake was committed by the deceased in assessing his state of health and prayed for equity intervention. Agreeing with the executors, Lewison J set aside the transfer or gift under the mistake of fact. (Hacker 2008:117). Griffith’s case has permitted tax payers in UK as part of their tax planning to have just and to annul gifts they have made under the mistake of facts. As per s 3A of the Inheritance Tax Act 1984, if a grantor lives for seven years immediately after executing a gift to somebody, there

Anything about marine biology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Anything about marine biology - Essay Example nt manmade and natural calamities have caused serious damage to the coral reef structures and as a result many reef formations have been lost over the years. Hence environmentalists and especially those in the field of marine biology are relentlessly trying to put an end to the destruction of coral reefs (Weir, 2001; Shah, 2010; Skoloff, 2010 Skoloff, 2010). All corals have a simple basic structure which is referred to as a polyp that consists of three layers of tissue: an outer epidermis, an inner cell layer surrounding the gastrovascular cavity and a middle layer of mesoglea. The gastrovascular cavity opens only at one end which facilitates food intake by the organism and also waste products are expelled through the same. Corals also possess tentacles which project as extensions of the body wall in the regions surrounding the mouth which mainly help to capture and ingest food as well as a source of defense when needed. In addition to this the presence of a unique type of cell called the cnidocyte that includes organelles such as nematocysts secrete lethal toxins which are helpful in prey capture. Additionally most corals contain a symbiotic alga, zooxanthellea, within their gastrodermal cells and both the algae and the coral share a mutually beneficial relationship by supplying resources required for photosynthesis, organic products o f photosynthesis and facilitating waste removal. This mutual exchange is vital for coral productivity as well as limestone-secreting capacity of the coral reefs using the photosynthetic produce of the algae. In addition, the presence of the algae is responsible for the color of the polyp and if the algae are expelled by the corals, which may occur during periods of prolonged stress, the coral reefs become while in color, a process which is referred to as coral bleaching. Using the photosynthetic products released by the algae the corals produce calcium carbonate. Of the 6000 known species of anthozoans, stony corals make up the

UK's Court's Equitable Jurisdiction in Inheritance Tax Matters Essay

UK's Court's Equitable Jurisdiction in Inheritance Tax Matters - Essay Example Since the medieval period, the equity principles in UK have emerged poignantly through the process of chains of various forms of the writ, conceived by the Lords Chancellor. UK courts have applied equitable jurisdiction through the forms of rescission, injunctions, specific performance and through rectification or reversion. An equitable remedy can be explained as a relief or remedy by recognising a loss suffered by an infringement of duty and demanding the fiduciary to make an order for compensation for the loss suffered as held in Target Holdings v Redferns. The court can order to pay monetary damages which are known as â€Å"equitable compensation.† The fundamental principle of the equitable jurisdiction is the concept that it functions or acts in personam. The meaning of in personam can be explained how the Court of Equity is more worried to stop any given individual from functioning unconscionably. Thus, a Court of Equity is therefore giving a verdict, footed on the verac ity of the facts unreasonably or not knowingly. If the defendant does not stop or carryout the court orders, then such person would be held as committed a contempt of court. In East v Pantiles Plant Hire Ltd , the court was asked to consider the background on which reversion or overhaul can be ordered as regards to a deed. In this case, Brightman J observed it is obvious on the officials that an error in a written deed, could, in some scenarios, be ordered to be corrected as an issue of drafting without applying for an order from a court for an order of rectification. To be eligible under this rule, it is necessary to fulfil the following two stipulations namely there should be an apparent and obvious error on the face of the deed, and it must be obvious what rectification has to be made so as to rectify the error. As a matter of construction, if the above two conditions are fulfilled, then such rectification is made. (Marshall2007: 90). Mistake of Fact In â€Å"Ogden, v Trustees of the RHS Griffiths 2003 Settlement†3, the trustees were delegated with revisionary interests in certain shares by the deceased grantor. When executing the deed, the gra ntor was of the opinion that his health was good and hence, he had a reasonable opportunity for living for at least seven years. As under Inheritance Tax Act 1984, if a gift is made, the grantor should live at least for seven years from the date of granting the gift. It is to be noted that after the expiry of seven years, there will be no inheritance tax on the assets so gifted to family members. However, Griffith was actually diagnosed with lung cancer and died after one year after the execution of the gift. Executors contended that a mistake was committed by the deceased in assessing his state of health and prayed for equity intervention. Agreeing with the executors, Lewison J set aside the transfer or gift under the mistake of fact. (Hacker 2008:117). Griffith’s case has permitted tax payers in UK as part of their tax planning to have just and to annul gifts they have made under the mistake of facts. As per s 3A of the Inheritance Tax Act 1984, if a grantor lives for seven years immediately after executing a gift to somebody, there

Marilyn Monroe Essay Example for Free

Marilyn Monroe Essay I have way too many influential people in my life. One too many. However there is one person I’ve looked up to for the past couple of years that really stood out from all the rest and although she doesn’t live today, I’m sure many young girls such as I look up to her and see her as an inspirational icon. Her birth name is Norma Jeane Mortenson but she’s greatly known today by her stage name, â€Å"Marilyn Monroe†. She was an actress, singer, model, showgirl, and soon also became a major sex symbol.   I look up to Marilyn, not only because of how good-looking she was, but because Marilyn Monroe was an incredible person that had gone through soooo many rough patches all throughout her life. She was very up front and bold and didn’t give a damn about what anyone thought about her and what she did, she was very smart. Not just book-smart, but street-smart too. Marilyn Monroe was an amazing person and I can go on and on about her and how wonderful she was. And still is to this day. Read more:  Person to admire essay Marilyn Monroe, as I said, had many rough patches all throughout her life. In a way, she relates to me. Very rebellious and like I said earlier, didn’t care what anyone else around her thought about her, just as long as she had her fun. She was a singer, which is one thing I most definitely love about her. Also, the fact that Marilyn has many of these quotes†¦ if you read all of the quotes from Marilyn Monroe, you’d definitely fall in love with them, just like I have. She came out to be deep and wise with the words she had left behind for the entire world to know. She seems to me†¦ as a realist and also a feminist, which I DEFINITELY LOVE to death, because I’m both a realist and also a feminist. The way she was growing up†¦ it seemed to me that everyone, well most, had tried bringing her down and holding her back most of her life. Telling her in a way that she couldn’t become whatever she wanted to become. That she wouldn’t be able to peruse any of her dreams. That she really wouldn’t go anywhere in her life. Despite all of the let downs and all the people who had tried to bring her down, Marilyn Monroe was still a strong person, who, despite what anyone said, proved them all wrong. I respect and look up to Marilyn Monroe for her confidence, her beauty, her  talent, and also for her perspective on many things in life. Although she had died at such a young age, Marilyn truly did bring out the meaning of â€Å"living life to the fullest†. She made the best out of her life. Had fun, day and night. She had persued her dreams and I look up to her for it because she just basically shows that you can do anything only if you set your mind to it and you let no one get in your way. It’s one of the reasons why I admire Marilyn Monroe so much.

Factors that contribute to quality of life

Factors that contribute to quality of life A report by Garavan, Winder and McGee (2001) Health and Social Services for Older People, Consulting Older People on Health and Social Services: A Survey of Use, Experiences and Needs concluded within its findings that older women viewed that they had a low quality of life. Stuart-Hamilton (2000) states that an element within the ageing concept is that men for varying reasons die at a greater rate than women after the age of 70 and that therefore it could be concluded that the ageing experience could be a longer process for women. The elderly population in Ireland is increasing in that according to Connell Pringle (2004) the projected population of older women in 2021 is expected to be between 375,000 and 389,000 which would indicate a rise of over 50 per cent from that in 2002. Ageing can be defined as the process of progressive change in the biological, psychological and social structure of individuals à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦aged 60 or over (Stein and Moritz, 1999;4). According to Greenstein (2006) social research is abstract in general in that the concepts are not easily measured because of the subjectivity of the topics and that a way of gaining a vague measure within the research is to ask the participants their level of satisfaction or dis-satisfaction in relation to the sub-themes. Ageing has a direct biological decline and because of this quality of life has been regarded to be directly linked by the health of the person versus ill-health. But health being defined by the World Health Organisation cited in (Bond and Corner, 2004:2) as a state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing have resulted in the concept that quality of life is much more complex and varied depending on other factors rather than being traditionally associated solely with health (Bond and Corner, 2004). Definition of Quality of Life Quality of life is not scientifically measureable in that it is very subjective to the individual depending on their experiences of ageing and that the terms well-being and life satisfaction are often used as a means of gaining an insight into the degree a person views that they are experiencing quality of life (Vincent, Phillipson and Downs, 2006). Research has shown that quality of life is subjective to the person, Abrams (1973) cited in (Bond and Corner, 2004:4) defines quality of life as the degree of satisfaction or dissatisfaction felt by people with various aspects of their lives. This literature review will act as a base for a thesis that will explore the views of older women in Cavan as to the factors that contribute to quality of life. The definition of what is quality of life is not easily determined and many authors offer different domains as the priority but in fact the priority will be subjective to what the individual older person measures as the most important aspect to them (Nay and Garratt, 2009). There has been much focus on what is quality of life in recent years in terms of social policies that have in turn directed service provision and providing care that is impacting positively on a persons quality of life according to Vincent et al (2006). Quality of life according to Nay and Garratt (2009) typically measures general health, physical, cognitive, sexual and emotional functioning while also measuring the happiness of the person but it is subjective to the person in that what one person views as important may differ from another person. Factors such as employment, social networks, social activities, self-identity, financial security and cognitive and physical function are considered to impact on quality of life (Renwick et al (2003) cited in Nay and Garratt, 2009). Also that quality of life in relation to older people is often used as an assessment measure of whether a service is supporting the needs of its clients in that it is not just a measure of quantity of life but that the life has quality within it so that the outcomes of supports or services are impacting positively on quality of life (Nay and Garratt, 2009). That measurement of quality of life is sometimes measured within one domain such as general health while others measure cover several domains. But in general the largest measurement of quality of life is the concept that it is directly connected to the health of the person and their satisfaction regarding their health (Nay and Garratt, 2009). Therefore Health Related Quality of Life is a term that is often used by service providers as a directive for their care provision (Nay and Garratt, 2009:352). Focusing quality of life within the domains of general health can create what is called the disability paradox in that older people rather than viewing their decline in health as an indicator of low quality of life that the expectation of inevitable physical and health decline has resulted in other factors such as social networks and their overall well-being as the domains used to measure their view of quality of life and that it is presumptuous to view that general health is the sole measure of quality of life (Carr and Higginson, (2001) cited in Nay and Garratt, 2009:353). According to Vincent et al (2006) people will view health, social networks and standard of living as important factors within their lives but that the importance of the factors will vary as the person proceeds along their life course. Research sources have shown the complexity in defining the key factors within quality of life and the initial reading by the researcher highlighted that the many elements could be loosely grouped within three sub-themes in relation to quality of life: (1) physical factors general health and physical mobility, (2) economic factors income, and standard of living and (3) social structure factors social networks, cultural environment but further reading has emphasised that even though these concepts are applicable that expanding them further will allow greater exploration and description. In that according to Stuart-Hamilton (2000) that focusing on a narrow of domains could result in some domains appearing more important within the research than they possibly are. That domains such as health, income, and environment have an impact on a persons life satisfaction in general and are all inter-related but that the personality of the person will also impact on the how they measure their life satisfaction (Stuart-Hamilton, 2000). Walker (2005) suggests that as quality of life has no distinct key factors that most research focuses on health, environment, employment and relationships. That the environment has within it the physical, social, cultural and economic elements that can either enhance or reduce quality of life. Health has within it general health and the physical, mental and emotional health of the person. Employment covers income and can be related to the wealth of the person. The key concepts with regard to quality of life as suggested by Hughes (1990) cited in Bond and Corner (2004) are: (1) Physical environmental factors which include quality of accommodation, access to public services such as shops, transport and other public services such as libraries and other leisure outlets. (2) Social environmental factors which include family members, social networks, the level of support obtainable from family and social networks and the levels of leisure activities that the person is involved in. (3) Socio-economic factors which include the general standard of living, the income available to the person and other means of wealth. (4) Cultural factors which include the age, class, gender and religious leaning of the person. (5) Health factors which include general health, mental well-being of the person and physical mobility. (6) Personality factors which include whether the person is an optimist or pessimist, will all impact on the subjectivity by the person on their measure of life satisfaction. (7) Autonomy factors which include the degree that a person has the capability to make their own decisions. (8) Satisfaction subjective to the individual the level of satisfaction over all the areas of their life that they judge as important. There is no definitive on what factors contribute to quality of life, therefore (Arnold (1991); McDowell Newell (1996) cited in Nay and Garratt 2009:355) suggest that the measurement of quality of life should include objective indices such as economic circumstances and housing, those that measure subjective aspects such as morale, happiness and life satisfaction and those that contain both objective and subjective components, such as health related quality of life But according to Bond and Corner (2004) the subjective and objective aspects are interrelated an illustration of this being in that the objective element of health related quality of life could be subjectively not important to the older person who as of yet has not experienced any health issues that they view as impacting on their quality of life. There is a view according to Stuart-Hamilton (2000) within society that the busier the life of an older person the more quality of life that they have. That the subjective measure of life satisfaction can be directly linked to the activities that an older person participates in that give a meaning to their life can be directly linked to one of the theories of ageing Activity Theory (Bond and Corner, 2004). That an indicator of life satisfaction can be the degree that an older person maintains activities within their community, in that the more activities indicate higher levels of life satisfaction. Bond and Corner (2004) disagree and agree with elements of this theory in that they state that although social networks and activities can maintain and support physical and mental health such as reducing depression that ageing has a biological element that can impact on health and reduces an older persons social network as confidantes become ill or eventually die and that it is wrong to e xpect an older person to engage in levels of activities to the degree that they did when they were much younger. Stuart-Hamilton (2000) suggests the concept that engaging in activities for the sake of them does not allow the older person the ability to make their own choices and that within the provision of services for older people that by assuming that any activity is better than none could be directly linked to the application of Disengagement theory whereby it is believed that the older person accepts that death is eventual and therefore prepares for death by choosing to dis-engage from society and that also it has a function of reinforcing the expected process of ageing in Western Society. Personality: And its link to health: One element within a persons personality is that it will relate to their choices with regard to their lifestyle such as diet, exercise all which can aid the life expectancy of a person but what if the persons personality has within it a negative outlook will this impact on how they view the ageing process and the biological decline and that rather than trying to improve their physical well-being by a healthier lifestyle that they approach death and illness as unavoidable and then reduce their activities and disengage from society (Stuart-Hamilton, 2000). Link between psychological well-being and personality and health: Research has shown a link between physical well-being and mental well-being in that according to Whitbourne (1987) cited in Stuart-Hamilton (2000) people that exercised and had levels of what they measured as physical well-being had a general feeling of overall well-being but therefore could it be said that people that have a poor physical well-being are more less satisfied with life (Stuart-Hamilton, 2000). Personality: Preference for lifestyle link: That the personality of a person whether they are an introvert or extrovert will also impact on the lifestyle they choose in that if they are an introvert it will probably follow that as they are older that they will not seek out social activities (Stuart-Hamilton, 2000). Disengagement theory Cumming and Henry, (1961) as cited in Stuart-Hamilton, (2000) suggest that as people get older that they automatically start to disengage from society in degrees as if in preparation for death and this is also supported by society in that the structures have come to expect this disengagement. This disengagement according to Stuart-Hamilton (2000) can be as a result of many factors such as illness, loss of family members, low income that does not provide for activities and also their personality type in that what if they are introvert or extrovert and that disengagement theory has been criticised for the overall image that older people are cutting ties with society in preparation for inevitable death. According to Maddox (1970) cited in Stuart-Hamilton, (2000) this disengagement may simply be a an aspect of the persons personality and that it is not an element of ageing at all. Merriman (1984) cited in Stuart-Hamilton (2000) also criticises disengagement theory an d states that ageing policies within many countries encourage that older people have an high profile within their community. Activity theory was proposed as a way of combating disengagement theory according to Stuart-Hamilton (2000) in that it was proposed that the more activities that an older person engaged in the better their life satisfaction. But this does not allow for choices for the older person and what if their personality is such that enforced activities is wrong (Stuart-Hamilton, 2000). Issues related to measuring Quality of Life There are issues relating to the measurement of quality of life in that the domains are both subjective and objective. The objective indices, such as economic circumstances and housing; those that measure purely subjective aspects, such as morale, happiness, and life satisfaction; and those that contain both objective and subjective components, such as Health Related Quality of Life measures (Arnold, (1991) cited in Nay and Garratt, 2009:355). Vincent et al (2006) agrees that there are both objective and subjective domains but unlike Nay and Garratt (2009) attributes social factors within the objective domains by stating that the number of social networks that a person has is objectively measureable but that the quality of these social networks is a subjective element. Likewise Vincent et al (2006) states that health although measureable in terms of whether an illness was present and therefore objectively measureable that the domain is also subjective in that the importance of health to quality of life will depend on what the individual views health to be. The view by Vincent et al (2006) that the meaning of what is health is subjectively defined by the individual is illustrated by the disability paradox as per (Carr and Higginson, (2001) cited in Nay and Garratt, 2009:353). In that older people rather than viewing their decline in health as an indicator of low quality of life in that the expectation of inevitable physical and health decline have resulted in other factors such as social networks as the domains used to measure their view of quality of life and that it is therefore presumptuous to view that general health is the sole measure of quality of life (Nay and Garratt, 2009). Anderson Bury (1988) cited in Vincent et al (2006) state that people can adjust to illness and develop coping skills so that the illness no longer factors as a significant domain to the person and this would therefore affect the measurement of health within quality of life research. Health and physical functioning as an objective measure in the domains of quality of life are mentioned continually and can in its simplest form according to Nay and Garratt (2009) be that if a person has a condition or range of illnesses be considered to have a low quality of life. But what if the adjustments suggested by Anderson Bury (1988) cited in Vincent et al (2006) were accommodations such as medication or lifestyle changes and were to adjust how the illness impacts on the person could it then be considered that although the health status remains the same but that the accommodations have resulted in the meaning of what is health to not be defined by illness or physical functioning. Therefore in relation to this research the aim is to explore the subjectivity of what the participant views as health and if any accommodations have impacted on the meaning of what is health. Economic factors such as standard of living are objectively measured according to Nay and Garratt (2009) in that income can be an indicator of a standard of living but according to Vincent et al (2006) this objective measure has to be balanced by the subjective measure of what is the expectation of a standard of living and according to Stuart Hamilton (2000) will be directly linked to past experiences of standard of living in that if a person has in the past had a particular standard of living the subjective measure will be linked to whether the same standard of living was expected by the person or not. Therefore in relation to this research with regard to economic factors as a domain within quality of life previous standard of living and expectations of standard of living as an older person and direct experience will be explored. According to Vincent et al (2006) quality of life has no scientific measurement that can define the exact objective degree of quality of life because there are so many variations of what is quality of life. That the experience of life may support or contradict what the objective measure describes as quality of life. Qualitative and Quantitative Methods: Quantitative methods are often the means of gaining information regarding what is quality of life but using quantitative methods will not allow for the subjectivity of individual experiences and their views on quality of life. That using structured questionnaires still conform to the researchers view of quality of life and does not allow for the exploration of the views of the older person. That these approaches do not allow for the symbolic nature and meaning of life to the individual (Vincent et al, 2006:158). Taking the view that as the person proceeds along the life course that their view of life will remain the same. Stuart Hamilton (2000) suggests that the life course Another challenge in relation to measuring quality of life and with particular reference to older people is that there can be such differences between each person in that as they age the experience in relation to physical, social, emotional, sexual and cognitive functioning is not as homogenous an experience and that these differing experiences will impact on what factors are key to quality of life (Stewart et al (1996) cited in Nay and Garratt, 2009). The setting that the older person lives within will impact greatly on the factors that are viewed as contributors to quality of life in that if a person is living within a residential unit that this group orientated setting will have different routines and rules in comparison to an older person living within community in general, and that for those within a residential setting that research has shown that dignity, self-determination and participation and accommodation of resident needs were considered to be the factors that impacted on quality of life (Nay and Garratt, 2009:357). That measurement of quality of life needs to consider the domains that are considered contributors within quality of life and that how the research is conducted in that the way that questions are asked can create a bias. As already stated biological decline is a natural aspect of ageing therefore if an indicator of quality of life were to be considered the level of physical functioning it would be inappropriate to ask the participant if they were physically able to do as much and for as long as they used to when they were younger and that this would not be a realistic indicator of quality of life according to Nay and Garratt, (2009). Measurement tools are World Health Organisation Quality of Life Instrument (whoqol) (Skevington et al 2004), cited in Nay and Garratt, 2009. Conclusion This literature review has explored the concept of quality of life and that the factors that are considered to contribute to quality of life are varied and can contain subjective and objective components and that older people in order to measure quality of life should not be viewed as a homogenous group.